Is Willingness to Communicate a Reliable Predictor of Learner Autonomy in an EFL Context?
Keywords:
communication, EFL learners, learner autonomy, willingness to communicate
Abstract
The present quantitative study investigated the relationship between willingness to communicate (WTC) and learner autonomy in an EFL context. In addition, it explored the probable effect of gender on the relationship between learner autonomy and WTC. Furthermore, it investigated whether WTC could predict learner autonomy. The data were collected from 142 upper-intermediate and advanced EFL learners (72 males and 70 females) by means of two questionnaires, the Learner Autonomy Questionnaire and the WTC Scale. The findings indicated that WTC correlated significantly and positively with learner autonomy. Moreover, correlational analysis revealed that gender modified this relationship in that the relationship between WTC and learner autonomy was stronger and more positive among female learners. The results revealed that WTC was a partial predictor of learner autonomy in this EFL context.
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References
Ahmadi, R. (2013). Iranian ESP learners’ perceptions of autonomy in language learning. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 2(1), 28–34.
Alemi, M., Tajeddin, Z., & Mesbah, Z. (2013). Willingness to communicate in L2 English: Impact of learner variables. Journal of Research in Applied Linguistics, 4(1), 42–61.
Aliakbari, M., Kamangar, M., & Khany, R. (2016). Willingness to communicate in English among Iranian EFL Students. English Language Teaching, 9(5), 33–45.
Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2003). The role of gender and immersion in communication and second language orientations. Language Learning, 53(1), 65–96.
Benson, P. (2001). Autonomy in language learning. Harlow, UK: Longman.
Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson Education.
Cameron, D. (2013). Willingness to communicate in English as a second language as a stable trait or Context influenced variable: Case studies of Iranian migrants to New Zealand. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 36(2), 177–196.
Candy, P. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education (6th ed.). London, UK: Taylor & Francis Group.
Cotterall, S. (1995). Readiness for autonomy: Investigating learner beliefs. System, 23(2), 195–205.
Crookall, D., & Ho, J. (1995). Breaking with Chinese cultural traditions: Learner autonomy in English language teaching. System, 23(2), 235–243.
Dafei, D. (2007). An exploration of the relationship between learner autonomy and English proficiency. Asian EFL Journal, 24(1), 5–30.
Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18(1), 105–115.
Deci, E. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. New York, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Donovan, L. A., & Maclntyre, P. D. (2004). Age and sex differences in willingness to communicate, communication apprehension, and self-perceived competence. Communication Research Reports, 21(4), 420–427.
Egel, I. P. (2009). Learner autonomy in the language classroom: From teacher dependency to learner independency. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 2023–2026.
Fahim, M., & Behdani, R. SH. (2011). Critical thinking ability and autonomy of Iranian EFL learners. American Journal of Scientific Research, 29, 59–72.
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London, UK: Edward Arnold.
Haghi, M. (2009). The relationship between perceived self-efficacy and Iranian EFL learners’ autonomy (Unpublished master’s thesis). Tehran: Islamic Azad University.
Hamzehnejad, F., & Shariati, M. (2014). The comparison of willingness to communicate and the preferred contexts between the MA students of Kerman Azad University and Kerman institute of higher education. International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World, 6(2), 371–380.
Hashimoto, Y. (2002). Motivation and willingness to communicate as predictors of reported L2 use: The Japanese ESL context. Second Language Studies, 20(2), 29–70.
Higgs, J. (1988). Planning learning experiences to promote autonomous learning. In D. Boud (Ed.), Developing student autonomy in learning (pp. 40–58). London, UK: Kogan Page.
Jacobs, G. M., & Farrell, T. S. (2001). Paradigm shift: Understanding and implementing change in second language education. The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, 5(1), 1–17.
Jamaleddin, Z. (2014). A comparison between male and female in their willingness to communicate and use of socio-affective strategies. International Journal of Educational Investigations, 2(4), 70–81.
Kang, S. J. (2005). Dynamic emergence of situational willingness to communicate in a second language. System, 33(2), 277–292.
Kashefian, S. N. (2002). An investigation into college EFL learners’ beliefs demonstrating their predispositions towards learner autonomy (Unpublished master’s thesis). Shiraz: Shiraz University.
Khabiri, M., & Heidari, M. (2011). The relationship among EFL learners’ left/right brain dominance, autonomy, and reading comprehension of the academic and general reading modules of IELTS. Journal of Language and Translation, 2(1), 59–77.
Khaki, Sh. (2013). The relationship between learner autonomy and willingness to communicate (WTC) in Iranian EFL learners. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 5(2), 97–109.
Little, D. (1995). Learning as dialogue: The dependence of learner autonomy on teacher autonomy. System, 23(2), 175–181.
Little, D. (1999). Developing learner autonomy in the foreign language classroom: A socialinteractive view of learning and three fundamental pedagogical principles. Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses, 38, 77–88.
Little, D. (2007). Language learner autonomy: Some fundamental considerations revisited. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 14−29.
Littlewood, W. (1996). “Autonomyâ€: An anatomy and a framework. System, 24(4), 427–435.
Littlewood, W. (1999). Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian contexts. Applied Linguistics, 20(1), 71–94.
MacIntyre, P. D. (1994). Variables underlying willingness to communicate: A causal analysis. Communication Research Reports, 11(2), 135–142.
MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clement, R., & Conrod, S. (2001). Willingness to communicate, social support, and language-learning orientations of immersion students. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23(3), 369–388.
MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clement, R., & Donovan, L. A. (2002). Sex and age effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning, 52(3), 537–564.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Charos, C. (1996). Personality, attitudes, and affect as predictors of second language communication. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 15(1), 3–26.
MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 545–562.
Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2005). Second language research: Methodology and design. New Jersey, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Mahmoodi, M. J., & Moazam, I. (2014). Willingness to communicate (WTC) and L2 achievement: The case of Arabic language learners. Procedia: Social and Behavioural Sciences, 98, 1069–1076.
McCroskey, J. C. (1992). Reliability and validity of the willingness to communicate scale. Communication Quarterly, 40(1), 16–25.
McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (1987). Willingness to communicate. In J. C. McCroskey & J. A. Daly (Eds.), Personality and interpersonal communication (pp. 129–156). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications.
McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (1991). Willingness to Communicate: A cognitive view. In M. Booth-Butterfield (Ed.), Communication, cognition, and anxiety (pp. 19–37). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Mohammadpour, E. (2013). A three-level multilevel analysis of Singaporean eighth graders science achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 26, 212–220. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2012.12.005
NajeebSabitha. S. R. (2013). Learner autonomy in language learning. Procedia- Social and Behavioural Sciences, 70, 1238–1242.
Nematipour, M. (2012). A study of Iranian EFL learners’ autonomy level and its relationship with learning style. English Linguistics Research, 1(1), 126–136.
Peng, E. J., & Woodrow, L. (2010). Willingness to communicate in English: A model in the Chinese EFL classroom. Language Learning, 60(4), 834–876.
Riasati, M. J., & Noordin, N. (2011). Antecedents of willingness to communicate: A review of literature. Studies in Literature and Language, 3(2), 74–80.
Scharle, A., & Szabo, A. (2000). Learner autonomy: A guide to developing learner responsibility. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second language learning. London, UK: Edward Arnold.
Smith, T. E. (1997). Adolescent gender differences in time alone and time devoted to conversation. Adolescence, 32, 483–496.
Tannen, D. (1990). You just don’t understand: Women and men in conversation. New York, NY: Ballentine Books.
Tanyeli, N., & Kuter, S. (2013). Examining learner autonomy in foreign language learning and instruction. Eğitim Araştirmalari-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 53, 19–36.
Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The Japanese EFL cont ext.The Modern Language Journal, 86(1), 54–66.
Zarrinabadi, N., & Abdi, R. (2011). Willingness to communicate and language learning orientations in Iranian EFL context. International Educational Studies, 4(4), 206–214.
Alemi, M., Tajeddin, Z., & Mesbah, Z. (2013). Willingness to communicate in L2 English: Impact of learner variables. Journal of Research in Applied Linguistics, 4(1), 42–61.
Aliakbari, M., Kamangar, M., & Khany, R. (2016). Willingness to communicate in English among Iranian EFL Students. English Language Teaching, 9(5), 33–45.
Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2003). The role of gender and immersion in communication and second language orientations. Language Learning, 53(1), 65–96.
Benson, P. (2001). Autonomy in language learning. Harlow, UK: Longman.
Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson Education.
Cameron, D. (2013). Willingness to communicate in English as a second language as a stable trait or Context influenced variable: Case studies of Iranian migrants to New Zealand. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 36(2), 177–196.
Candy, P. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education (6th ed.). London, UK: Taylor & Francis Group.
Cotterall, S. (1995). Readiness for autonomy: Investigating learner beliefs. System, 23(2), 195–205.
Crookall, D., & Ho, J. (1995). Breaking with Chinese cultural traditions: Learner autonomy in English language teaching. System, 23(2), 235–243.
Dafei, D. (2007). An exploration of the relationship between learner autonomy and English proficiency. Asian EFL Journal, 24(1), 5–30.
Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18(1), 105–115.
Deci, E. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. New York, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Donovan, L. A., & Maclntyre, P. D. (2004). Age and sex differences in willingness to communicate, communication apprehension, and self-perceived competence. Communication Research Reports, 21(4), 420–427.
Egel, I. P. (2009). Learner autonomy in the language classroom: From teacher dependency to learner independency. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 2023–2026.
Fahim, M., & Behdani, R. SH. (2011). Critical thinking ability and autonomy of Iranian EFL learners. American Journal of Scientific Research, 29, 59–72.
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London, UK: Edward Arnold.
Haghi, M. (2009). The relationship between perceived self-efficacy and Iranian EFL learners’ autonomy (Unpublished master’s thesis). Tehran: Islamic Azad University.
Hamzehnejad, F., & Shariati, M. (2014). The comparison of willingness to communicate and the preferred contexts between the MA students of Kerman Azad University and Kerman institute of higher education. International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World, 6(2), 371–380.
Hashimoto, Y. (2002). Motivation and willingness to communicate as predictors of reported L2 use: The Japanese ESL context. Second Language Studies, 20(2), 29–70.
Higgs, J. (1988). Planning learning experiences to promote autonomous learning. In D. Boud (Ed.), Developing student autonomy in learning (pp. 40–58). London, UK: Kogan Page.
Jacobs, G. M., & Farrell, T. S. (2001). Paradigm shift: Understanding and implementing change in second language education. The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, 5(1), 1–17.
Jamaleddin, Z. (2014). A comparison between male and female in their willingness to communicate and use of socio-affective strategies. International Journal of Educational Investigations, 2(4), 70–81.
Kang, S. J. (2005). Dynamic emergence of situational willingness to communicate in a second language. System, 33(2), 277–292.
Kashefian, S. N. (2002). An investigation into college EFL learners’ beliefs demonstrating their predispositions towards learner autonomy (Unpublished master’s thesis). Shiraz: Shiraz University.
Khabiri, M., & Heidari, M. (2011). The relationship among EFL learners’ left/right brain dominance, autonomy, and reading comprehension of the academic and general reading modules of IELTS. Journal of Language and Translation, 2(1), 59–77.
Khaki, Sh. (2013). The relationship between learner autonomy and willingness to communicate (WTC) in Iranian EFL learners. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 5(2), 97–109.
Little, D. (1995). Learning as dialogue: The dependence of learner autonomy on teacher autonomy. System, 23(2), 175–181.
Little, D. (1999). Developing learner autonomy in the foreign language classroom: A socialinteractive view of learning and three fundamental pedagogical principles. Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses, 38, 77–88.
Little, D. (2007). Language learner autonomy: Some fundamental considerations revisited. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 14−29.
Littlewood, W. (1996). “Autonomyâ€: An anatomy and a framework. System, 24(4), 427–435.
Littlewood, W. (1999). Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian contexts. Applied Linguistics, 20(1), 71–94.
MacIntyre, P. D. (1994). Variables underlying willingness to communicate: A causal analysis. Communication Research Reports, 11(2), 135–142.
MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clement, R., & Conrod, S. (2001). Willingness to communicate, social support, and language-learning orientations of immersion students. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23(3), 369–388.
MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clement, R., & Donovan, L. A. (2002). Sex and age effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning, 52(3), 537–564.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Charos, C. (1996). Personality, attitudes, and affect as predictors of second language communication. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 15(1), 3–26.
MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 545–562.
Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2005). Second language research: Methodology and design. New Jersey, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Mahmoodi, M. J., & Moazam, I. (2014). Willingness to communicate (WTC) and L2 achievement: The case of Arabic language learners. Procedia: Social and Behavioural Sciences, 98, 1069–1076.
McCroskey, J. C. (1992). Reliability and validity of the willingness to communicate scale. Communication Quarterly, 40(1), 16–25.
McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (1987). Willingness to communicate. In J. C. McCroskey & J. A. Daly (Eds.), Personality and interpersonal communication (pp. 129–156). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications.
McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (1991). Willingness to Communicate: A cognitive view. In M. Booth-Butterfield (Ed.), Communication, cognition, and anxiety (pp. 19–37). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Mohammadpour, E. (2013). A three-level multilevel analysis of Singaporean eighth graders science achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 26, 212–220. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2012.12.005
NajeebSabitha. S. R. (2013). Learner autonomy in language learning. Procedia- Social and Behavioural Sciences, 70, 1238–1242.
Nematipour, M. (2012). A study of Iranian EFL learners’ autonomy level and its relationship with learning style. English Linguistics Research, 1(1), 126–136.
Peng, E. J., & Woodrow, L. (2010). Willingness to communicate in English: A model in the Chinese EFL classroom. Language Learning, 60(4), 834–876.
Riasati, M. J., & Noordin, N. (2011). Antecedents of willingness to communicate: A review of literature. Studies in Literature and Language, 3(2), 74–80.
Scharle, A., & Szabo, A. (2000). Learner autonomy: A guide to developing learner responsibility. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second language learning. London, UK: Edward Arnold.
Smith, T. E. (1997). Adolescent gender differences in time alone and time devoted to conversation. Adolescence, 32, 483–496.
Tannen, D. (1990). You just don’t understand: Women and men in conversation. New York, NY: Ballentine Books.
Tanyeli, N., & Kuter, S. (2013). Examining learner autonomy in foreign language learning and instruction. Eğitim Araştirmalari-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 53, 19–36.
Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The Japanese EFL cont ext.The Modern Language Journal, 86(1), 54–66.
Zarrinabadi, N., & Abdi, R. (2011). Willingness to communicate and language learning orientations in Iranian EFL context. International Educational Studies, 4(4), 206–214.
Published
2019-03-25
How to Cite
Mohammadi, M., & Mahdivand, Z. (2019). Is Willingness to Communicate a Reliable Predictor of Learner Autonomy in an EFL Context?. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 9(1), 9-26. https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.667
Section
VARIA
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